A Reformed perspective on Roman Catholicism in light of renewed global focus

The world looks again at Rome

In the wake of Pope Francis's passing, the Roman Catholic Church is once again prominently in the global spotlight. Such significant moments inevitably spark widespread discussion about its vast history, global influence, hierarchical structure, and distinctive doctrines. For those within the Reformed tradition, this presents a timely and crucial opportunity to engage with Roman Catholicism in a considered manner, seeking to understand its foundational tenets and the key areas where they differ from the principles reaffirmed during the Protestant Reformation.

This article aims to provide a clear, educational overview of Roman Catholicism from a Reformed theological perspective. It will address foundational beliefs, church structure, historical claims, philosophical underpinnings, views on salvation and sacraments, and articulate the key differences that separate the Reformed faith from Rome.

While acknowledging shared roots in historical Christianity, Roman Catholicism diverges significantly from the Reformed faith in its understanding of (1) authority (Scripture versus Scripture plus Tradition and the Magisterium), (2) salvation (faith alone versus faith plus works mediated through sacraments), (3) the nature of the Church, and (4) the role of mediators (Christ alone versus Christ plus a hierarchical priesthood, Mary, and the saints).

These differences are not superficial but touch the very heart of the gospel, necessitating careful understanding and articulation from a Reformed viewpoint grounded in Scripture.

What Roman Catholicism believes

To understand Roman Catholicism, one must begin with its foundational beliefs, many of which it holds in common with historic, orthodox Christianity. These core doctrines are most concisely expressed in the ancient creeds, particularly the Nicene Creed and the Apostles' Creed.

Central to Catholic faith is the belief in one God, eternally existing in three persons: Father, Son (Jesus Christ), and Holy Spirit. This Triune God is confessed as the almighty Creator of heaven and earth.

Roman Catholicism affirms the full deity and humanity of Jesus Christ, the only Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father. It confesses His conception by the Holy Spirit, birth from the Virgin Mary, suffering under Pontius Pilate, crucifixion, death, and burial. Crucially, it upholds His bodily resurrection from the dead on the third day, His ascension into heaven where He is seated at the right hand of the Father, and His future return in glory to judge the living and the dead. 

Belief in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son (Filioque), and who spoke through the prophets, is also fundamental. These tenets, articulated in the Creeds and summarized in resources like the Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC), form a significant area of shared heritage with Protestantism. Establishing this common ground highlights that the subsequent critique focuses on specific points of divergence, not a wholesale rejection of basic Christian orthodoxy.

However, a fundamental difference emerges immediately when considering the sources and authorities for doctrine. Roman Catholicism rests on what is often described as a "three-legged stool" of authority: (1) Sacred Scripture, (2) Sacred Tradition, and (3) the Magisterium. While Catholics believe the Bible is the inspired Word of God, it is not the sole authority. Sacred Tradition, encompassing teachings believed to have been passed down from the apostles orally and through the Church's ongoing life (including writings of Church Fathers and decisions of councils), is considered an equally authoritative source of divine revelation.

The Magisterium, which is the teaching authority vested in the Pope and the bishops in communion with him, is held to possess the sole authority to authentically interpret both Scripture and Tradition. This teaching office includes the doctrine of papal infallibility, which asserts that the Pope is preserved from error by divine assistance when he formally defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals (ex cathedra).

This framework contrasts sharply with the foundational Reformed principle of Sola Scriptura – Scripture alone is the supreme and infallible rule for faith and life. While Reformed theology values tradition and the teachings of the church throughout history, they are always subordinate to and must be judged by the Word of God.

The Roman Catholic elevation of Tradition and the Magisterium to a level of authority equal to Scripture represents the primary and most fundamental point of departure. This difference in ultimate authority inevitably leads to differing conclusions on numerous other doctrines, as teachings and practices not found in, or even seemingly contradicting, Scripture can be established and maintained based on Tradition or Magisterial pronouncements (e.g., Marian dogmas like the Immaculate Conception and Assumption of Mary, purgatory, indulgences, and papal supremacy itself).

The structure of the Church: Hierarchy and the Papacy

The Roman Catholic Church possesses a distinct and highly defined hierarchical structure, believed to be divinely instituted. This structure flows from the Pope down through various ranks of ordained clergy.

At the base of the ordained ministry are deacons, who assist priests and bishops, particularly in liturgical and charitable roles.

Above them are priests, who are ordained ministers who typically serve in local parishes. A central concept in Catholic theology is that the priest acts as alter Christus, meaning "another Christ". Through the Sacrament of Holy Orders, the priest is believed to be ontologically configured—changed in his very being—to Christ. This enables him to act in persona Christi Capitis (in the person of Christ the Head), especially when administering sacraments like the Eucharist (confecting the elements) and Penance (forgiving sins). This power is seen as a continuation of the authority Christ gave His apostles. The priest is viewed not merely as a functionary but as representing Christ sacramentally, mediating His grace to the faithful. This understanding distinguishes the ordained priest fundamentally from ordinary people.

Bishops are considered the successors of the apostles and hold the "fullness of the sacrament of Holy Orders". Typically, a bishop governs a geographical region called a diocese, serving as its chief pastor and teacher. Archbishops usually oversee larger territories known as archdioceses or ecclesiastical provinces, often having some supervisory role over other bishops in the region. 

Cardinals are high-ranking clergy, usually bishops or archbishops, appointed by the Pope. Their primary role is to serve as advisors to the Pope and, crucially, to elect a new Pope upon the death or resignation of the incumbent (those under 80 years old participate in the conclave).

At the apex of this structure sits the Pope, the Bishop of Rome. Roman Catholic teaching holds that the Pope is the personal successor to the Apostle Peter, upon whom Christ allegedly built His Church (citing Matthew 16:18). This Petrine succession is claimed to be an unbroken line from Peter to the present day. The Pope is titled the Vicar of Christ, acting as His supreme representative on Earth. He is believed to possess "full, supreme, and universal power over the whole Church," extending not only to matters of faith and morals but also to church discipline and governance worldwide. As mentioned earlier, this includes the charism of infallibility when defining doctrine ex cathedra. Obedience to the Pope's authority is considered necessary.

From a Reformed perspective, this entire hierarchical structure, particularly the Papacy, lacks biblical warrant and represents a departure from the New Testament model of church governance. The interpretation of Matthew 16:18 as establishing a papal office passed down through the bishops of Rome is contested; many Reformers and subsequent theologians argue the "rock" refers to Peter's confession of faith in Christ, or to Christ Himself, rather than Peter personally as a transferable office. Furthermore, Scripture indicates Peter did not hold absolute supremacy over the other apostles (e.g., Paul confronts Peter in Galatians 2). There is no clear biblical evidence for an office of Pope or for Peter passing on unique authority specifically to the bishops of Rome. Historical evidence also suggests that the authority claimed by later Popes was not recognized or exercised by the earliest Roman bishops (The historical roots of Papal primacy can be traced back to the early centuries of Christianity, wherein the bishop of Rome, commonly referred to as the Pope, gradually accrued increasing authority and recognition. A confluence of historical, theological, and political factors contributed to this development).

Reformed theology also challenges the rigid distinction between clergy and laity inherent in the Catholic hierarchy, especially as embodied in the alter Christus concept. The New Testament teaches the priesthood of all believers (1 Peter 2:9), meaning all Christians have direct access to God through Christ, the sole Mediator. While God appoints specific offices for teaching and leadership (pastors/elders, deacons), these are roles of service (ministerium), not a separate priestly caste (magisterium) mediating grace. The terms for "elder" (presbyteros) and "overseer/bishop" (episkopos) are used interchangeably in the New Testament (e.g., Acts 20:17, 28; Titus 1:5-7), indicating a single office of elder/pastor governing the local church, not a multi-tiered hierarchy above it.

The office of apostle, furthermore, was unique and foundational, tied to being eyewitnesses of Christ and directly commissioned by Him; it was not intended to be succeeded in the way Catholic teaching claims for bishops.

Ultimately, the Reformed view affirms Christ alone as the Head of the Church (Ephesians 1:22-23; Colossians 1:18). The development of the Papacy and the broader hierarchy is seen as a gradual historical process, often influenced by political power struggles and institutional consolidation, rather than a direct institution by Christ. The Papacy, from this perspective, represents a usurpation of Christ's unique authority over His Church.

The significance of this hierarchical structure in the Romanist Church, especially the role of the priest as alter Christus, extends beyond mere organization. It forms the necessary framework for the Catholic understanding of how grace is mediated, particularly through the sacraments. If sacraments are objective means of grace requiring specific administration (as discussed later), then a priesthood uniquely empowered to perform these actions becomes theologically indispensable. The Reformed critique of the hierarchy, therefore, directly impacts the perceived necessity and function of the Catholic sacramental system itself.

Historical claims: The Great Schism and the "One True Church"

Roman Catholicism makes significant historical claims regarding its identity and continuity. Key among these are its relationship to the Great Schism and its assertion of being the "one true Church" founded by Christ.

The Great Schism, conventionally dated to 1054 AD, marked the formal separation between the Western Church (centered in Rome) and the Eastern Church (centered in Constantinople). This division was not sudden but the culmination of centuries of growing estrangement fueled by a complex interplay of factors. Cultural and linguistic differences (Latin West vs. Greek East) created barriers to understanding. Political shifts, including the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the later rise of Charlemagne's empire in the West (seen by Byzantium as illegitimate), led to divergent political contexts and loyalties. Different liturgical practices and theological emphases also developed.

The two most prominent theological issues precipitating the final break were papal primacy and the Filioque clause. The Church of Rome increasingly asserted the Pope's universal jurisdiction and supreme authority over the entire Church, based on his Petrine succession. The Eastern Churches, while acknowledging the Bishop of Rome held a primacy of honor ("first among equals"), rejected this claim to universal jurisdictional power, favoring a more conciliar model of church governance where authority resided in councils of bishops. The Filioque controversy concerned the Western Church's addition of the phrase "and the Son" (filioque) to the Nicene Creed's statement about the Holy Spirit's procession ("who proceeds from the Father"). The East objected strongly, viewing this as an unauthorized alteration of an ecumenical creed and theologically problematic regarding the distinct roles within the Trinity. Tensions boiled over in 1054 when papal legates, led by Cardinal Humbert, excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cerularius, who responded by excommunicating the legates. While relations continued in some places afterward, this event marked the definitive symbolic break. The mutual anathemas were lifted in 1965 as a gesture of goodwill, but the churches remain separated.

Closely tied to its view of history is the Roman Catholic Church's claim to be the "one true Church" founded by Jesus Christ. This position asserts that Christ established only one visible, institutional Church, endowed with the fullness of truth and the necessary means of salvation, and that this Church is the Catholic Church governed by the Pope and bishops in communion with him. This claim is often linked to the doctrine of apostolic succession, the belief that Catholic bishops form an unbroken line back to the apostles, ensuring fidelity to Christ's teaching. Historically, this led to the maxim extra Ecclesiam nulla salus ("outside the Church there is no salvation"), though modern Catholic teaching nuances this, acknowledging possibilities of salvation for those invincibly ignorant of the Catholic Church but still saved through it implicitly.

The Second Vatican Council's document Lumen Gentium addressed this claim, stating that the Church of Christ "subsists in" (subsistit in) the Catholic Church. This phrasing has generated significant discussion. Some saw it as potentially opening the door to recognizing other Christian communities as churches in some sense, moving away from a strict identity claim (est - "is"). However, official interpretations from the Vatican have clarified that "subsists in" is intended to affirm the unique and full presence of Christ's Church within the visible Catholic Church, while acknowledging that "many elements of sanctification and of truth" (like Scripture, baptism, faith in Christ) exist outside its visible boundaries. These elements are seen as belonging properly to the Church of Christ and thus impelling towards Catholic unity. The claim remains that the Catholic Church possesses the fullness of the means of salvation.

The Reformed tradition understands the nature of the Church differently. It distinguishes between the invisible Church, comprising all the elect throughout history, known only to God, and the visible Church, consisting of all those who profess faith in Christ and their children across the globe, organized into local congregations. No single earthly institution perfectly corresponds to the invisible Church or even perfectly manifests the visible Church. Instead, true visible churches are identified by certain marks, chiefly: the true preaching of the Word of God, the right administration of the sacraments (Baptism and the Lord's Supper) according to Christ's institution, and the faithful exercise of church discipline. Churches are considered more or less pure depending on their fidelity to these marks.

From this perspective, the Roman Catholic claim to be the sole true Church is rejected as unbiblical and historically insupportable. Salvation is found through faith in Jesus Christ, not by membership in a particular institution. The "elements of truth and sanctification" found in non-Catholic Christian communities are not merely borrowed fragments belonging to Rome, but genuine evidences of the Holy Spirit's work within the broader visible Church of Christ.

The historical reality of the Great Schism itself presents a significant challenge to Rome's narrative of being the one, unchanged Church under continuous, universally recognized papal authority since Peter. The fact that a vast portion of ancient Christendom permanently rejected Rome's claims to universal jurisdiction demonstrates that such authority was not universally accepted in the first millennium. This undermines the historical basis for the claim of an unbroken, universally acknowledged papal supremacy essential to Rome's self-understanding as the unique Church founded by Christ.

Contrasting foundations: Philosophy, sin, and the Image of God

The divergences between Roman Catholicism and Reformed theology extend to their foundational philosophical and anthropological assumptions, particularly concerning the use of reason (natural theology), the nature of the image of God (Imago Dei) after the Fall, and the definition of sin itself.

Roman Catholic theology, particularly since the Middle Ages, has been profoundly influenced by the philosophical system of Thomas Aquinas (Thomism). Thomism integrated Aristotelian philosophy with Christian doctrine, creating a powerful synthesis. A key aspect of this is its approach to natural theology. Traditional Catholic thought, following Aquinas, generally holds that human reason, by observing the created order, can attain certain knowledge about God's existence, His power, and some of His attributes, even apart from special revelation in Scripture. Grace is seen as perfecting nature, implying that fallen human nature, including reason, retains a significant capacity for apprehending truth about God, though grace received through faith is necessary for salvation and understanding higher mysteries.

The Reformed perspective, while affirming that creation clearly reveals God's eternal power and divine nature (Romans 1:20), emphasizes the devastating impact of sin on human reason (the Noetic effects of sin). Fallen humanity, though possessing the faculty of reason, actively suppresses the truth about God in unrighteousness (Romans 1:18) and twists the knowledge available in creation into idolatry (Romans 1:21-23). Therefore, while general revelation renders humanity inexcusable, true, saving knowledge of God comes only through His special revelation in Jesus Christ, as recorded in Scripture and illuminated by the Holy Spirit. In Reformed theology, Grace restores or redeems nature.

Natural theology, from this view, cannot provide an independent pathway to knowing God rightly; its value lies primarily in confirming what Scripture reveals or demonstrating the coherence of Christian theism, always under the authority of special revelation. The article referenced "A Reformed perspective on natural theology beyond Thomism," elaborates on this critique, arguing for a view of natural theology consistent with Reformed presuppositions about sin's pervasive effects, contrasting it with the more optimistic assessment of unaided reason found in Thomism.

These differing views on reason's capacity are linked to understandings of the Imago Dei and sin. Catholic teaching often emphasizes the rational soul as a core component of the image of God, which, though wounded by sin, retains its essential structure and inherent dignity. The Fall resulted primarily in the loss of supernatural grace and original justice, leaving human nature damaged but not obliterated. The Reformed view typically understands the Imago Dei more comprehensively, including not just rationality but also original righteousness, holiness, and relational integrity with God (often termed the functional aspect), which were lost or severely corrupted at the Fall. While structural elements like reason remain, their function is distorted by sin, directed away from God until regeneration begins the process of restoration in Christ.

Perhaps the most critical difference in this area lies in the understanding of sin. Roman Catholicism often approaches original sin as a kind of metaphysical defect or privation – a loss or lack of the original state of grace and justice, resulting in a "stain" on the soul and a wounded nature. This perspective tends to view sin as something needing to be counteracted, healed, or removed, often through the infusion of grace via the sacraments.

The Reformed tradition, conversely, defines sin primarily as ethical rebellion against God's holy law and His rightful authority. Original sin results in inherited guilt before God and total depravity – meaning that sin affects every aspect of human nature (mind, will, affections), rendering individuals spiritually dead and utterly unable to save themselves or even incline themselves towards God apart from His sovereign, regenerating grace. Sin is fundamentally a legal and relational problem: humans stand guilty before a righteous Judge and have broken fellowship with their Creator, requiring substitutionary atonement and reconciliation.

These contrasting foundational views—on reason's capacity after the Fall, the nature of the Imago Dei, and the definition of sin—have profound implications for the doctrine of salvation. If reason retains significant capacity and sin is primarily a wound needing healing, a path to salvation involving human cooperation with infused grace and sacramental remedies appears logical. However, if reason is darkened and sin constitutes total rebellion resulting in spiritual death and guilt, then salvation must be entirely a work of God's sovereign grace, based on Christ's substitutionary work satisfying divine justice, received solely through God-given faith. The understanding of anthropology and hamartiology necessarily shapes the resulting soteriology.

The path to salvation: Justification and Sanctification

The differences in foundational understanding lead directly to sharply contrasting views on how sinners are made right with God (justification) and grow in holiness (sanctification). This was the central theological battleground of the Reformation.

In Roman Catholic theology, justification is not merely a legal declaration but a transformative process initiated at Baptism. Baptism is believed to wash away original sin and infuse the soul with sanctifying grace and the supernatural virtues of faith, hope, and charity. This infusion begins the process of making the sinner actually and internally righteous. Justification, therefore, includes both the forgiveness of sins and the inner renewal and sanctification of the person. It is not considered complete at the outset but can be increased through good works performed in a state of grace, which are believed to truly merit an increase in grace and ultimately eternal life. Conversely, justification can be lost through mortal sin, requiring restoration through the Sacrament of Penance (confession and absolution). Thus, justification is not by faith alone, but by a faith that is active in love and good works, mediated through the sacramental life of the Church. Sanctification is seen as intrinsically linked to, and part of, the ongoing process of justification. The Council of Trent explicitly condemned the doctrine of justification by faith alone (sola fide).

The Reformed doctrine of justification stands in stark contrast. It understands justification as a singular, definitive, legal act of God. Based solely on the finished work of Jesus Christ—His perfect life and substitutionary death—God declares sinful believers righteous in His sight. This righteousness is not inherent in the believer or infused into them; rather, Christ's perfect righteousness is imputed, or credited, to their account. This declaration happens the moment a person exercises true faith in Christ. Faith itself is not the ground of justification but the God-given instrument through which the believer receives Christ and His righteousness. Justification changes the believer's legal standing before God permanently; it is not a process that can be increased or lost.

Sanctification, in Reformed theology, is understood as a distinct, yet inseparable, work of the Holy Spirit that follows justification. It is the ongoing, progressive work of God within the believer, gradually conforming them to the image of Christ in their character and conduct. Good works are the necessary fruit and evidence of genuine justifying faith and the work of the Spirit, but they contribute nothing to the basis of justification itself, nor do they merit God's favor or eternal life. Because justification rests entirely on the objective work of Christ imputed to the believer and received by faith alone, believers can have genuine assurance of their salvation, not based on their own performance but on God's promise in the gospel.

The core of this profound disagreement lies in the very definition of justification. Is it primarily God making someone inherently righteous through an internal transformation (Catholic view), or is it God declaring someone righteous based on the external, alien righteousness of Christ credited to them (Reformed view)? This fundamental difference in definition explains the differing views on the role of faith, works, sacraments, and assurance.

The Catholic system integrates sanctification into justification, making ongoing participation and effort essential for maintaining and increasing one's justified status. The Reformed system distinguishes justification (legal status) from sanctification (moral transformation), with the former being the unshakeable foundation for the latter, both grounded entirely in God's grace through Christ.

Sacraments, Grace, and Worship

The understanding of sacraments and their role in conferring grace is another major area of divergence, flowing directly from the differing views on justification and the Church's structure.

Roman Catholicism recognizes seven sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance (Reconciliation/Confession), Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Matrimony. These are believed to be outward signs instituted by Christ that effectively convey the specific grace they signify. A key concept is that they work ex opere operato – "by the work worked". This means the sacraments are held to be objectively efficacious in conferring grace simply by the valid performance of the sacramental rite by a properly ordained minister (usually a priest acting in persona Christi), regardless of the personal holiness of the minister or even the subjective faith of the recipient (though proper disposition is necessary to receive the grace fruitfully). Sacraments are thus seen as the primary, divinely appointed, objective channels through which God dispenses the grace necessary for justification, sanctification, and salvation. For example, Baptism is believed to confer regenerative grace, washing away original sin and incorporating the individual into Christ and the Church, making it necessary for salvation. The Sacrament of Penance is the means by which sins committed after Baptism are forgiven through priestly absolution.

The Eucharist, or Mass, holds a central place. Catholic doctrine teaches transubstantiation: during the priest's consecration, the inner reality (substance) of the bread and wine are changed entirely into the actual body and blood of Jesus Christ, while only the outward appearances (accidents) of bread and wine remain. Christ is thus believed to be physically present in the consecrated elements. Furthermore, the Mass is understood not merely as a meal or remembrance, but as a true, propitiatory sacrifice. It is considered an unbloody re-offering of Christ's one sacrifice on Calvary, made present on the altar and offered to God the Father for the benefit of the living and the dead (specifically, souls believed to be undergoing purification in Purgatory).

The Reformed tradition recognizes only two sacraments instituted by Christ in the Gospels: Baptism and the Lord's Supper. These are understood not as conferring grace ex opere operato, but as signs and seals of the covenant of grace. They visibly represent spiritual realities and God's promises in the gospel, and they serve to confirm and strengthen the faith of believers. Their efficacy is not inherent in the rite itself but depends on the sovereign work of the Holy Spirit making them effective in the hearts of those who receive them by faith.

The Lord's Supper is a remembrance of Christ's sacrifice, a participation in communion with the spiritually present Christ through faith (views on the nature of this presence vary within the Reformed tradition, but all reject transubstantiation), and a proclamation of His death until He returns. Crucially, it is not a re-sacrifice or re-presentation of Christ's sacrifice; His sacrifice on Calvary was finished, once for all (Hebrews 9:28, 10:10-14). Baptism is a sign and seal of union with Christ, regeneration, forgiveness of sins, and entrance into the visible covenant community, applied to believers and their children (in most Reformed traditions). It signifies these realities but does not automatically effect regeneration.

Because the Roman Catholic system ties the reception of grace so closely to participation in these seven sacraments, administered by a specific hierarchical priesthood, and sees this participation as integral to the process of justification, Reformed theology critiques it as potentially becoming a religion of works. From a Reformed standpoint, it appears to make salvation dependent, at least in part, on human actions (performing rites, confessing to a priest, doing penance) rather than resting solely on God's free grace received through faith in Christ's completed work.

It becomes evident that the Catholic doctrines concerning the hierarchical priesthood (alter Christus), the seven sacraments operating ex opere operato, the process view of justification involving infusion and merit, and the metaphysical understanding of sin form a coherent, interconnected system. The view of sin necessitates a remedy involving infused grace; the sacraments are the means of this infusion; these require a specific priesthood for valid administration; and participation in this system constitutes the path of justification and sanctification. A challenge to one element, such as the Reformed assertion of Sola Fide, inherently calls into question the necessity and function of the entire interconnected structure.

Affirming the Reformation: Key doctrinal corrections

In contrast to the Roman Catholic system, the theology recovered during the Protestant Reformation emphasizes several key principles, often summarized by the "Solas," which serve as crucial corrective:

• Sin as Ethical Rebellion: Reaffirming the biblical understanding of sin not merely as a wound or defect, but as a willful transgression of God's holy law (1 John 3:4). This results in genuine guilt before God and renders humanity totally unable to merit salvation or contribute to it apart from grace. This understanding highlights the necessity of Christ's substitutionary atonement to satisfy divine justice.

• Sola Fide (Faith Alone): Insisting that justification—being declared righteous before God—is received through faith alone, apart from any works or merits of our own. Faith is the empty hand that receives the free gift of Christ's righteousness imputed to the believer. This stands against the Catholic view of justification as a process involving infused grace, sacraments, and meritorious works.

• Solus Christus (Christ Alone): Proclaiming Jesus Christ as the sole Mediator between God and humanity (1 Timothy 2:5). His perfect life, atoning death, and resurrection are fully sufficient for salvation. This rejects any mediating role for a priestly hierarchy (alter Christus), Mary, or the saints in obtaining forgiveness or grace. Access to God is direct, through Christ alone.

• Sola Scriptura (Scripture Alone): Upholding the Bible as the sole infallible and sufficient authority for all matters of faith and practice. All traditions, church teachings, and councils must be tested by and subordinate to the Word of God. This contrasts with the Roman Catholic reliance on Scripture plus Tradition and the Magisterium.

• Sola Gratia (Grace Alone): Asserting that salvation, from beginning to end, is entirely the result of God's unmerited favor and sovereign grace. It is not earned or achieved through human effort, cooperation, or participation in sacramental rites. God initiates and accomplishes salvation for His chosen people.

• Soli Deo Gloria (Glory to God Alone): Concluding that, because salvation is entirely God's work through Christ, accomplished by grace alone, received through faith alone, and revealed in Scripture alone, all glory belongs to God alone.

These principles form the heart of the Reformed understanding of the gospel and stand as fundamental points of difference with Roman Catholic doctrine.

Key Doctrinal Differences: Reformed vs. Roman Catholic Perspectives

Conclusion: Understanding the Differences

The renewed global focus on the Roman Catholic Church serves as a reminder of its enduring presence and distinct theological claims. From a Reformed perspective, while acknowledging areas of shared Christian heritage, fundamental divergences remain concerning the ultimate source of authority, the nature of justification and the means of grace, the definition and structure of the Church, and the identity of the Mediator. Rome's system, built upon the pillars of Scripture, Tradition, and Magisterium, presents a view where salvation is mediated through a hierarchical priesthood administering grace-infusing sacraments, contributing to a process of justification that includes inherent righteousness and meritorious works.

In contrast, the Reformed faith, grounded in the principle of Sola Scriptura, affirms that salvation is by grace alone, through faith alone, in Christ alone. Justification is a definitive legal declaration based on Christ's imputed righteousness, received by faith, which then leads inevitably to a life of sanctification and good works empowered by the Holy Spirit. The Church is headed by Christ alone, and its true marks are found where His Word is purely preached, His sacraments rightly administered, and discipline faithfully exercised.

Understanding these deep and interconnected differences is not merely an academic exercise. It is crucial for maintaining theological clarity within the Reformed tradition, for engaging in faithful Christian witness, and for participating honestly in any ecumenical dialogue. Meaningful discussion requires acknowledging the real and substantial theological disagreements that exist, rather than minimizing them for the sake of superficial unity. As believers committed to the Reformed faith, the task remains to hold fast to the biblical gospel centered on the sovereign grace of God in Jesus Christ, proclaiming His truth with conviction and charity.

Works cited

1. What Do Catholics Believe?, accessed April 27, 2025, https://walpolecatholic.net/what-do-catholics-believe

2. What do Catholics believe? - Diocese of Lansing, accessed April 27, 2025, https://www.dioceseoflansing.org/general/what-do-catholics-believe

3. sacredheart.npcat.org.uk, accessed April 27, 2025, https://sacredheart.npcat.org.uk/what-catholics-believe/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CI%20believe%20in%20God%2C%20the,he%20descended%20to%20the%20dead.

4. Catechism of the Catholic Church - The Holy See, accessed April 27, 2025, https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/_INDEX.HTM

5. What Catholics Believe | Diocese of Parramatta, accessed April 27, 2025, https://parracatholic.org/learn/our-faith/

6. What is the Catechism of the Catholic Church? - Living Faith - Home & Family - News, accessed April 27, 2025, https://www.catholic.org/news/hf/faith/story.php?id=87309

7. Hierarchy of the Catholic Church - Vatican Tours, accessed April 27, 2025, https://www.vaticancitytours.it/blog/hierarchy-of-the-catholic-church/

8. Catholic Terms | USCCB, accessed April 27, 2025, https://www.usccb.org/offices/public-affairs/catholic-terms

9. Catholic Church - Wikipedia, accessed April 27, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church

10. Hierarchy of The Roman Catholic Church - YouTube, accessed April 27, 2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TsWQwbs8DTE

11. Explaining the Hierarchy of the Church - Catholic Exchange, accessed April 27, 2025, https://catholicexchange.com/explaining-the-hierarchy-of-the-church/

12. Alter Christus - Dominican Friars Foundation, accessed April 27, 2025, https://dominicanfriars.org/alter-christus/

13. The Church's Alter Christi - National Catholic Register, accessed April 27, 2025, https://www.ncregister.com/news/the-church-s-alter-christi

14. Sacerdos alter Christus | St. Thomas Aquinas Seminary, accessed April 27, 2025, https://stas.org/en/sacerdos-alter-christus-30098

15. The Priest: Alter Christus - SOCIETY OF IGNATIANS, accessed April 27, 2025, https://societyofignatians.com/who-we-are/we-are-priests-sealed-by-identity/the-priest-alter-christus/

16. The Priest as Alter Christus - Gratia Vobis Ministries, Inc., accessed April 27, 2025, https://gratiavobisministries.org/2024/12/07/the-priest-as-alter-christus/

17. Priest As Alter Christus/another Christ - Catholic Open Mic - Phatmass, accessed April 27, 2025, https://www.phatmass.com/phorum/topic/135490-priest-as-alter-christusanother-christ/

18. Roles of Bishop, Archbishop and Cardinal Explained | Diocese of Lafayette, accessed April 27, 2025, https://dol-in.org/role-of-bishops-archbishops-and-cardinals-explained

19. Church Fathers & Scripture Stand Against the Papacy - Anabaptist Faith, accessed April 27, 2025, https://anabaptistfaith.org/papacy/

20. Arguments Against the Papacy : r/OrthodoxChristianity - Reddit, accessed April 27, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/OrthodoxChristianity/comments/18lbp4t/arguments_against_the_papacy/

21. One true church - Wikipedia, accessed April 27, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_true_church

22. Why Don't Protestants Have a Pope? - Clearly Reformed, accessed April 27, 2025, https://clearlyreformed.org/why-dont-protestants-have-a-pope/

23. when did the Refomers consider the popes to go off the rails? | The Puritan Board, accessed April 27, 2025, https://puritanboard.com/threads/popes-when-did-the-refomers-consider-the-popes-to-go-off-the-rails.97763/

24. Innocent III and Papal Hierarchy (1) - Standard Bearer, accessed April 27, 2025, https://sb.rfpa.org/innocent-iii-and-papal-hierarchy/

25. Theological differences between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church - Wikipedia, accessed April 27, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theological_differences_between_the_Catholic_Church_and_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church

26. The Great Schism and Its Relation to the Catholic Church, accessed April 27, 2025, https://localcatholicchurches.com/articles/the-great-schism-and-its-relation-to-the-catholic-church/

27. East–West Schism - Wikipedia, accessed April 27, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism

28. The Great Schism between Eastern and Western Christendom - St. Paul's Greek Orthodox Church, accessed April 27, 2025, https://stpaulsirvine.org/the-great-schism/

29. The Great Schism of 1054 and the Split of Christianity - Learn Religions, accessed April 27, 2025, https://www.learnreligions.com/the-great-schism-of-1054-4691893

30. The Great Schism of 1054 by Stephen Nichols - Ways to Learn at Ligonier.org, accessed April 27, 2025, https://learn.ligonier.org/articles/great-schism

31. The Orthodox Faith - Volume III - Church History - Eleventh Century - The Great Schism, accessed April 27, 2025, https://www.oca.org/orthodoxy/the-orthodox-faith/church-history/eleventh-century/the-great-schism

32. Anxiety from “one true church” claims : r/TrueChristian - Reddit, accessed April 27, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/TrueChristian/comments/19706p1/anxiety_from_one_true_church_claims/

33. The One True Church - First Things, accessed April 27, 2025, https://firstthings.com/the-one-true-church/

34. Deacon-structing: What is the One, True Church? | Salt + Light Media, accessed April 27, 2025, https://slmedia.org/blog/deacon-structing-the-one-true-church

35. The Sacrifice of Ecumenism | The Conciliar Anglican - WordPress.com, accessed April 27, 2025, https://conciliaranglican.wordpress.com/2015/10/02/the-sacrifice-of-ecumenism/

36. The One True Church? : r/Reformed - Reddit, accessed April 27, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/Reformed/comments/161iii1/the_one_true_church/

37. Back to basics: A Reformed perspective on natural theology beyond ..., accessed April 27, 2025, https://www.apologeticscentral.org/blog/back-to-basics-a-reformed-perspective-on-natural-theology-beyond-thomism

38. Do Reformed theologians understand the Catholic Church and the Papacy to have been true heirs of Peter until the Reformation? - Christianity Stack Exchange, accessed April 27, 2025, https://christianity.stackexchange.com/questions/78959/do-reformed-theologians-understand-the-catholic-church-and-the-papacy-to-have-be